None of the tarot cards surviving from the 15th and 16th centuries have titles written on them. However, there are a number of written references to tarot cards from this period, some of which refer to the trump cards by their titles. Combining references from Michael Dummett's The Game of Tarot and Stuart Kaplan's Encyclopedia of Tarot, Volume II, gives a total of ten references to the titles of the cards, from about 1480 through the end of the 16th century. The early titles tell us what the first generations of tarot players thought the cards depicted. This is important evidence for anyone speculating on what the original symbolic meaning of the sequence might have been.
Here are the earliest titles. I have listed the trumps in the Marseilles order for convenience, but readers should be aware that none of the early documents list the trumps in this order. Minor variations in spelling have been ignored, but all significant variations are listed. Variant titles are given with the earliest (Steele sermon) title first, and the number of citations for each variant in parentheses. Detailed comments on particular cards follow the list.
|
Italian |
English |
|
Mato |
Fool |
|
Bagatella (8), Bagatino (1), Bagatto (1) |
Juggler |
|
Papessa |
Papess |
|
Imperatrice |
Empress |
|
Imperatore |
Emperor |
|
Papa |
Pope |
|
Carro Triumphale (3), Carro (7) |
Triumphal Chariot, Chariot |
|
Amore |
Love |
|
Justicia |
Justice |
|
Gobbo (3), Vecchio (3), Tempo (2) |
Hunchback, Old Man, Time |
|
Ruota, Ruota di Fortuna |
Wheel, Wheel of Fortune |
|
Fortezza |
Fortitude |
|
Impiccato (2), Traditore (8) |
Hanged Man, Traitor |
|
Morte |
Death |
|
Temperanza |
Temperance |
|
Diavolo |
Devil |
|
Sagitta (1), Casa (1), Fuoco (4), Casa del Diavolo (1), Casa de Dannato (1) Inferno (1) |
Arrow, House, Fire, House of the Devil, House of the Damned, Hell |
|
Stella |
Star |
|
Luna |
Moon |
|
Sole |
Sun |
|
Angelo |
Angel |
|
Mondo |
World |
Thirteen of these titles match precisely the titles used in the familiar Tarot de Marseille: Fool, Papess, Empress, Emperor, Pope, Justice, Death, Temperance, Devil, Star, Moon, Sun, and World. In addition, two more are essentially the same: French Bateleur is a fair translation of Italian Bagatella, and Wheel is just an abbreviation of Wheel of Fortune. (Bagatella is a bit of a problematic word. It probably means someone using a wand, in the sense of a conjurer or parade performer. But it is not easy to find a direct English translation.) Likewise, Chariot is probably an abbreviation of Triumphal Chariot, a title that associates the car more strongly with the triumph processions.
Two more titles are similar to the Marseilles versions, but with significant difference in meaning. Whereas The Lovers (Amoreux) draws attention to the couple pictured on the card, Love (Amore) emphasizes the abstraction or allegory. Fortitude (Fortezza), as contrasted with Strength (Force), is the more usual name for the cardinal virtue, and is associated more with courage than with power.
Although the early Italian cards all depict the Last Judgement scene, more or less as seen in the Tarot of Marseilles, it is interesting that the title Judgement is never used for this card; it is invariably the Angel. This offers a different idea of what the focal point of the scene is intended to be.
This leaves three cards with titles that vary significantly even in the early Italian sources:
The Hermit is referred to as Hunchback, Old Man, or Time, with about equal frequency. The figure is frequently depicted with an hourglass, suggesting Time, and the full-blown image of the winged man on crutches is seen in the Rothschild sheet and persists in the Bolognese and Florentine tarot traditions. So the association with Time was at least early and strong, whether or not it was the original meaning. Considering all three titles, it is possible that the card represents old age--serving, along with the Traitor, as a sort of prelude to Death.
The Hanged Man is more frequently called the Traitor. This title emphasizes the connection with shame paintings, in which a traitor was depicted hung upside down as a means of propaganda. The subject of the card is thus clearly the execution of a criminal, whatever other connations it might also have.
The Tower (House of God of Maison Dieu in the Tarot of Marseilles) is most frequently called Fire, but other titles abound. The Arrow no doubt refers to the lightning strike that hits the tower; the others refer to the building itself, identifying it with Hell. Although fire is obviously associated with Hell, the design of the card poses some questions. The fire or lightning is usually shown as coming from above, and the scene does not generally appear to be a picture of the underworld. The fire seems more likely to be "fire from Heaven", an agency of divine punishment. The explicitly "infernal" titles of the card may be a somewhat later development, arising from the fact that it immediately follows the Devil in sequence. I think it is likely that the original title was simply Fire, referring to the tongue of flame that strikes and destroys the building.
Although there is some interesting ambiguity in the early titles of the cards, it is not overwhelming. The differences between the old titles and those in use today (inherited from the Tarot de Marseille) are important, and should be kept clearly in mind when speculating on the original meaning of the sequence. Throughout these pages, unless the reference is to a specific deck where the actual card title is known, I use the following titles for the tarot trumps:
Fool - Bagatto - Papess - Empress - Emperor - Pope - Love - Chariot - Justice - Old Man - Wheel - Fortitude - Traitor - Death - Temperance - Devil - Fire - Star - Moon - Sun - Angel - World
A. The Steele Sermon, Sermones de Ludo cum Aliis, c. 1480, author and locale unknown. (Gobbo, Impiccato, Sagitta)
B. Tarocchi Appropriati composed for the 1522 church conclave, author and locale unknown. (Vecchio, Traditore, Casa)
C. Teofilo Folengo (Merlin Cocai), 1527, Mantua. (Tempo, Traditore, Fuoco)
D. Pomeran da Citadella, Triumphi, 1534, Venice. (Tempo, Traditore, Fuoco)
E. Giulio Bertoni, c.1540, Ferrara. (Gobbo, Traditore, Casa del Diavolo)
F. Le Carte Parlanti, Pietro Aretino, 1543, Venice. ( - , Traditore, - )
G. Invective against tarot playing, Lollio, 1550, Venice. (Gobbo, Traditore, Inferno)
H. Tarocchi Appropriati composed for the 1550 church conclave, author and locale unknown. ( - , Traditore, Casa de Dannato)
I. Tarocchi Appropriati of Giambattista Susio, c.1570, Pavia (near Milan). (Vecchio, Traditore, Fuoco)
J. Tomaso Garzoni, 1585, Venice. (Vecchio, Impiccato, Fuoco)